Quick Pick Internet Links

EARTH & SPACE SCIENCE FOR EVERYBODY

By

Lasse  A. Kivioja

This book is a new type of a book that has all of its over 1,400 photos/pictures/ galleries/tables/expert explanations available in a small download, called ‘Quick Pick Links’ (QPL).  The book itself has no pictures on its 332 printed pages.   Each link opens on the computer monitor or on Digital Book Reader by a mouse click on the desired link.  Many of these links update themselves daily in the ‘Quick Pick Links’ as new information becomes available, keeping this book up to date almost forever.  

Many Internet links in the  ‘Quick Pick Links’ open journal articles with galleries for the day and the days past.  Some galleries cover several years and also have references to other Internet links, journal articles and to books in the subject area of the link.  Many journal articles in the Internet links have underlined words (= other links) giving more details.

 
Among the carefully selected ‘Quick Pick Links’ are the excellent US government links, such as by NASA, GSFC  (GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER), USGS, USNO, NOAA, HUBBLE, CHANDRA, NIST, AGU, USGS, NOAA, NAOJ, HUBBLE, SPITZER, STEREO, SOHO, European Space Agency ESA and the Japanese JAXA.  There are some other organizations with excellent links.  The websites of the mentioned acronyms, of many Ground Telescopes, of many Space Probes and of many Orbiting Telescopes have excellent sites. Most of those sites are American.  All of them have excellent links/sites with their newest photos and explanations with galleries.  All links are in the Public Domain.

The downloaded ‘Quick Pick Links’ document has 129 pages and 10813 words (September 2011).  It can be downloaded from the author’s website www.lakivioja.com in a few seconds.  The quality of these photos is superior to the same photos/pictures printed on the paper pages of any book.  This book has 332 pages.  Imagine how the book would look if it had fourteen hundred color photos!

The author recommends that the icon of the ‘Quick Pick Links’ be left on the desktop for the duration of reading the book making the links always quickly available.  If the desired link does not open, (that happens very seldom), the site may be under construction or no longer maintained.  One can always google for the subject matter immediately above the link in the book, or COPY/PASTE the link into a browser.  For instance:

Google: < mount st. helens volcano > produced 61 pages with about 9 links per page.  One of these 600 links might be the troublesome link, or another link may have almost the same desired information.

1.  Introduction

http://www.nineplanets.org/overview.html        

http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=OortCloud

http://www.astronomynotes.com/solfluf/s8.htm

Google:  < jpl >

http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/ 

Google:   < the milky way >

http://casswww.ucsd.edu/public/tutorial/MW.html

http://seds.org/messier/more/mw.html

 Google:   < list of nearest galaxies >

http://www.answers.com/topic/list-of-nearest-galaxies

http://www.answers.com/topic/list-of-galaxies

 Google:   < NOAO Image Gallery: Galaxies > Click on photos.

http://www.noao.edu/image_gallery/galaxies.html

http://antwrp.sfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap070319.html

2.  Available Bibliography on the Internet

Google: < nnn >

http://www.loc.gov/index.html?gclid=CN201rXkuI0CFTJcIgodo1cGFg

Google: < copyright term and the public domain in the United Sntates >

http://www.copyright.cornell.edu/training/Hirtle_Public_Domain.htm

2.2. Useful Internet Sites for Earth Sciences

1. Google: < nasa earth observatory, Image of the Day >

         http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/

     http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/SolarWind.shtml

     http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/

     www.space.com

         www.space.com/news

2. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) at:

3.  www.noaa.gov

         U.S. Geological Survey at

4. www.usgs.gov

U.S. Government at:

5. www.science.gov

6. U.S. Naval Observatory

:

7. http://www.nrl.navy.mil/

8. Sun – Earth environment:

9. www.spaceweather.com

10. HUBBLE:

11. http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/2007/01 

12. American Geophysical Union (AGU) at:

13. www.agu.org

14. Chandra X-Ray observatory:

15. http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/chandra/main/index.html

16. SOHO, Solar and Heliospheric Observatory:

17. http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/data/realtime/eit_284/512/

18. http://www.space-plasma.qmw.ac.uk/heliocoords/systems2art/systems2art.html

19. SECCHI: Sun Earth Connection Coronal and Heliospheric Investigation:

20. http://secchi.nrl.navy.mil/

21. STEREO-A and STEREO-B:

22. http://stereo.gsfc.nasa.gov/

23. ESA, European Space Agency:

         http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEM0GW8L6VE_index_0.html

24. JAXA: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency:

     http://www.isas.jaxa.jp/e/

25. NAOJ, ( + Hinode), National Astronomical Observatory of Japan:

          http://solar-b.nao.ac.jp/index_e.shtml

          http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2006/02nov_firstlight.htm

          http://www.virtualobservatory.org/

Orbital Astronomical telescopes:

http://www.jwst.nasa.gov/

On previous link, click on photos and see videos

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope

http://www.seds.org/~spider/oaos/oaos.html

Ground-based Astronomical Observatories:

Mauna Kea Observatories:

http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/mko/

http://dir.yahoo.com/Science/Astronomy/Research/Observatories/

http://tdc-www.harvard.edu/mthopkins/obstours.html

http://www.astro.caltech.edu/~pls/astronomy/observs.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highest_astronomical_observatories

Atmospheric Sciences

http://www.academicinfo.net/atmsci.html

Biogeosciences

http://www.biogeosciences.org/

Click on ‘Translate’ into English

Geodesy

http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/PUBS_LIB/Geodesy4Layman/toc.htm

Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetosphere

http://geopaleomagnetism.agu.org/

Hydrology

http://www.aihydro.org/

Click on ‘Translate’ into English

Ocean Sciences

http://www.nsf.gov/div/index.jsp?div=oce

Planetary Sciences

http://www.lpi.usra.edu/library/website.shtml

Seismology

http://seismology.agu.org/

Space Physics and Aeronomy

http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=15993

Tectonophysics

http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/neic/

         Volcanology

http://dir.yahoo.com/Science/Earth_Sciences/Geology_and_Geophysics/Volcanology/

3.  Areas of Earth Sciences Covered in this Book

http://www.agu.org/

http://www.google.com/Top/Science/Earth_Sciences/Oceanography/Journals/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science

4.  From Where and How did all this Come About?

No person, neither any religion knows all the details how the universe came to being

5.  Basic Units of Length

Google:  < nist > and for all SI (International System) units at:

Google:  < base unit definitions: meter, inch, foot, mile,… >

http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/meter.html

http://www.nist.gov/

http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/current.html

Google:   < definition of the meter>

http://lamar.colostate.edu/~hillger/meter.htm

 Google:   < the united states and the metric system >

http://ts.nist.gov/WeightsAndMeasures/Metric/lc1136a.cfm

 Google:   < usno master clock time >

http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/what.html

http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/what1.html

Excerpt form the link above:  “These GIF animations use server push to send the time out in synchronization with the USNO Master Clock. They require a web browser that fully implements this technique. Please note that the time displays available from this page will not work for all browsers. The most accurate way to use the Internet to get to USNO time is via NTP

Google:   < nautical mile >        

http://www.boatsafe.com/kids/roger1099.htm        

Google:  < platinum-iridium meter bar >

http://www.mel.nist.gov/div821/webdocs-14/lsi_2.htm

Google:   < nist history of metric system > NIST stands for National Institute of Standards and Technology.

 http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/history.html

Google:   < si system of measures >

http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/index.html

Google:   < nist metric information and conversions: a capsule history >

http://ts.nist.gov/WeightsAndMeasures/Metric/lc1136a.cfm

Google:   < npl history of the length measurement >

http://www.npl.co.uk/about/history_length/

Google:   < metric system >

http://lamar.colostate.edu/~hillger/common.html

Google:   < international system of units >

http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/index.html

Google:   < old units of length >

http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/oldleng.htm

Google:   < the earth based units of length >

http://www.roma1.infn.it/~dagos/history/sm/node4.html

5.1.  Understandable Units for all Astronomical Distances

Google:   < anatomy of the solar system >

http://www.northern-stars.com/solar_system_distance_scal.htm

Google:   < the nine planets >    data on this solar system

http://www.nineplanets.org/ 

Google:   < solar system sizes and scales >

http://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/K12/planetsize/planetsize.html

Google:    < apod index-galaxies local group >

http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/local_group.html

This site has: “Editor's choices for educational Astronomy Pictures of the Day about the Local Group of galaxies:

              < list of nearest galaxies > 

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nearest_galaxies

This site lists 115 galaxies within about 12 million light-year radius from us.  Andromeda is one of them: at about 3 million light-year distance.

The volume of a sphere with a radius of 3 light-years is 113 cubic light-years. Therefore in this small sample, the density of galaxies (around us) is 0.3 galaxies per one cubic light-year.

The volume of the little larger (total listed) sphere (not only to Andromeda) is about is 7,200 cubic light-years.  This volume has 115 galaxies listed. Therefore in this little larger sample, the density of listed galaxies (around us) is 0.2 galaxies per one cubic light-year.

Not too bad for government work!

The density of galaxies in the universe is not uniform.  Galaxy clusters exist.

http://www.atlasoftheuniverse.com/supercls.html

5.2. How Long Is The 14 Billion, (14 x 10E9) Light-Year Distance?

Google:  < fundamental physical constants >

http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/index.html

Google:   < one light year >

http://www.physlink.com/education/askexperts/ae502.cfm

One light-year = 9,460,528, 000,000,000,000 meters

= (2.9979*10^8 m/s)*(3.1557*10^7 s)
= 9.4605*10^15 meters
or ~ 9,500,000,000,000 kilometers
or ~ 5,900,000,000,000 miles
or ~ 63,279 Astronomical units (AU). One AU = 500 light-seconds = Earth to Sun average distance

http://www.glyphweb.com/esky/default.htm?http://www.glyphweb.com/esky/concepts/lightyear.html

Google:  < exponential notation of numbers >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_notation

Google:  < periodic table >

http://www.webelements.com/

Google:   < supernova >

http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/supernovae.html

http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/gr/public/bb_home.html

Google:   < extra-solar system planets >

http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/1998/19

Google:   < other planetary systems >

http://www.princeton.edu/~willman/planetary_systems/

 6.  Directions/Distances to Stars and Galaxies

Google:  < celestial coordinates >

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/time/coordinates.html

Google:   < celestial declinations and right ascensions >

http://www.skyandtelescope.com/howto/basics/Celestial_Coordinates.html

Google:   < astronomical distances >

http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/distance.htm

7.  Star Constellations

Google:      < alphabetical listing of star constellations >

http://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/constellation_list.html

Google:   < polaris or north star or pole star >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pole_star

http://library.thinkquest.org/29033/begin/coordinate.htm

Google:   < ecliptic constellations >

http://www.mallorcaweb.net/masm/descon1.htm

Google:   < the origin of the zodiac >

http://homepage.mac.com/kvmagruder/bcp/zodiacal/zoo.htm

8.  The Sun’s Location in the Milky Way Galaxy 

Google:     < the 50 nearest stars >  Scroll down to the table.

http://www.cosmobrain.com/cosmobrain/res/nearstar.html

Google:   < star magnitudes > Star magnitude describes star’s apparent brightness.

http://www.vaughns-1-pagers.com/science/star-magnitude.htm

Google:   < milky way galaxy >

http://cassfos02.ucsd.edu/public/tutorial/MW.html

Google:   < news about the milky way galaxy >

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4278005.stm

Google:  < the milky way galaxy >

http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/gr/public/gal_milky.html

Google:   < seti >

http://setiathome.berkeley.edu/

Google:   < astronomers discover largest stars known >

http://www.physorg.com/news2640.html

8.1.  Planet Earth in the Universe

Google:  < the milky way galaxy – our home >

http://apod.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap000130.html

Google:  < celestial coordinates >

http://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/segwayed/lessons/findplanets/coordinates.html

Google:   < celestial declinations and right ascensions >

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/time/coordinates.html

Google:  < age of the universe >        

http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/age.html

Google:   < HubbleSite-faqs. how old is the solar system? >

http://hubblesite.org/reference_desk/faq/answer.php.id=3&cat=solarsystem

Google:   < redshift >        

http://astsun.astro.virginia.edu/~jh8h/glossary/redshift.htm

Google:   < hot big bang >

http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/gr/public/bb_home.html

http://chandra.harvard.edu/about/index.html

 9. Possible Alien Visits to Earth

Google:    < three body problem is celestial mechanics >

http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/RestrictedThree-BodyProblem.html

Google:   < double stars >

http://schmidling.com/doubst.htm

Google:   < the double star library >

http://ad.usno.navy.mil/wds/dsl.html

http://www.usno.navy.mil/

Google:   < messier object 31 > = Andromeda, the nearest large spiral galaxy.

http://seds.org/messier/m/m031.html

10. Common Velocities in Space

Google:    < solar system data >

http://www.nineplanets.org/data.html

Google:   < Primer on the Solar Space Environment >

http://www.sec.noaa.gov/primer/primer.html

Google:   < earth and moon viewer >

http://www.fourmilab.ch/earthview/

Google:   < earth and sun viewer >

http://ds9.ssl.berkeley.edu/viewer/flash/flash.html

Google:   < solar system viewer >  

http://space.jpl.nasa.gov/

Google:   < galactic viewer >

http://www.weathergraphics.com/galactic/

Google:   < number of galaxies in the universe >

http://hypertextbook.com/facts/1999/TopazMurray.shtml

Google:   < Doppler shift >

http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/doppler.htm

Google:   < spectral lines in stars >

http://cas.sdss.org/dr6/en/proj/advanced/spectraltypes/lines.asp

11. Earth as a Sphere

Google:   < the earth as a sphere >

http://www.roundearth.net/sphere.htm

Google:  < the earth as an ellipsoid >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure_of_the_Earth

11.1. The Direct Problem in Computing Earthly Distances

Google:   < Canadian Spatial Reference System - Software >

http://www.geod.nrcan.gc.ca/site_e.php

Google:   < geodetic direct problem >

http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1971BGNS...99...55K

Link above:

Google:   < back azimuth >

http://www.answers.com/topic/back-azimuth?cat=technology

Google:   < datum and earth ellipsoid >

http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/datum/datum.html

Google:   < geodetic line >

http://www.answers.com/topic/geodetic-line?cat=technology

11.2. The Direct and Inverse Problem in Computing Earthly Distances

Google:   < geometric geodesy >

 Journal Article

Computation of geodetic direct and indirect problems by computers accumulating increments from geodetic line elements

L. A. Kivioja

Bulletin Géodésique (1946 - 1975), 1971, Volume 99, Number 1, Pages 55-63

1. Show Summary
2. Download PDF (349.2 KB)

In Bulletin Geodesique and in Surveying and Mapping, Kivioja published a method for computing coordinates and azimuths for any 'way-points' and any 'end-points' in GPS positioning, solving the two Main Problems of Geometric Geodesy (Direct and Inverse Problems) by very precise computer integration using the original differential equations for all geodetic line elements on the surface of any Earth Ellipsoid besting all older methods. Famous mathematicians spent some time solving these two elliptical integration problems. Among them are: Clairaut 1713-1765, Lagrange 1736-1813, Laplace 1749-1827, Legendre 1752-1833, Gauss 1777-1855, Bessel 1784-1846, Jordan 1838-1922 and Helmert 1843-1917.None of these famous men had electronic calculators. 

http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/PUBS_LIB/Geodesy4Layman/toc.htm

Google:   < international association of geodesy >

http://www.iag-aig.org/

Google;  < yrjö väisälä >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yrj%C3%B6_V%C3%A4is%C3%A4l%C3%A4

In link above, click on ‘Geodesy’.

These are the beginnings of the GPS, the Global Positioning System, originally called the Geodetic Positioning System by its developers.  The name was changed by the American TV-media whose members did not know the meaning of the English word:  GEODETIC, or the word was considered too unknown to most people.

(The author knew personally professor Väisälä and visited his home and his outstanding Tuorla Astronomical Observatory near Turku, Finland in 1964.)

GPS has its origins in professor Yrjö Väisäslä’s many inventions.  He invented the Star Triangulation Method, designed and built suitable equipment, including cameras for very large triangles (much larger triangles than in standard first-order triangulation networks over relativly flat lands).  This Väisälä’s method was used in the 1950s by the Finnish Geodetic Institute.  Half of Finland was covered by 4 Väisälä’s large Star Triangulation triangles.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_triangulation

Väisälä’s method led to the Star Triangulation Method used by the US National Geodetic Survey (NGS) covering the whole Earth: U.S. National Geodetic Survey (1966-1970. . .

http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19900903&slug=1091155

NGS used satellites with series of blinking lights.  Earlier, Väisälä method used first Magnesium camera-flashes and later electronic flashes at altitudes of 20 to 40 kilometers, carried up by weather balloons designed and built by Yrjö Väisälä’s brother Vilho Väisälä.  

http://www.vaisala.com/en/corporate/history/professorvilhovaisala/Pages/default.aspx

The same individual light flashes were simultaneuosly photographed from 3 (or 4) ground stations against each station’s backgroud star field.

[PDF] 

DELFT UNIVERSITY EQUIPMENT FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC SATELLITE

www.ncg.knaw.nl/Publicaties/Geodesy/pdf/20Poelstra.pdf - Block all www.ncg.knaw.nl results

File Format: PDF/Adobe Acrobat - Quick View
by TJ POELSTRA
capable of holding eight photographic plates (size 8" X 10"). Time is obtained by means ...principle a number of photographic images of the satellite projected against a background of stars. A specific star ..... Three light-flashes are indicated. .

The intended link from above is:

http://www.ncg.knaw.nl/Publicaties/Geodesy/pdf/20Poelstra.pdf    << see its page 14

http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/brs/geind1.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WORLDWIDE_GEOMETRIC_SATELLITE_TRIANGULATION_NETWORK,_BC-4_CAMERAS.GIF

Here's a view of the camera, manufactured by Wild, in Heerbrugg, Switzerland, specially for photographing satellites. The original BC-4 had a 350 mm focal length while the modified camera used in the PAGEOS program had a 450mm focal length.

http://www.zianet.com/tedmorris/dg/1968.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodesy

http://www.google.com/#hl=en&cp=25&gs_id=4m&xhr=t&q=wild+T4+theodolite+photos&qe=d2lsZCBUNCB0aGVvZG9saXRlIHBob3Rvcw&qesig=bj-OAzSXYZH-ArwAX0bIKw&pkc=AFgZ2tnzmWR5UJGBH9VnaRll9KPrMn1sYtYHZ9rMP9gSWEj3UzUeVNcNMtUOzlyG3Q2jHewyyqvedPwEJYFriiEpXDyKhiJFEw&pf=p&sclient=psy&source=hp&pbx=1&oq=wild+T4+theodolite+photos&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&gs_sm=&gs_upl=&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.&fp=796c71472385f62f&biw=1236&bih=856

The light flashes were photographed simultaneously with high precision cameras (1940’s and later) against the station’s star backgound from 3 (or more ground stations), producing more accurate relative ground coordinates for the camera stations than was possible earlier with trangulation targets on the ground.

NGS observations covered the whole Earth’s surface. For instance, one triangle covered the entire continental USA.  

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Geodetic_System

Väisälä’s method led to the widely known GPS, which became possible after the availability of Earth satellites and atomic clocks in them and on the ground.  

GPS positioning system is one of the most important inventions of our time.  

GPS is the final product invented and built by geodesists from Yrjö Väisälä and geodesists at the Finnish Geodetic Institute to the geodesists at NGS (National Geodetic Survey), DOD (Department of Defense), scientists, engineers working at many industries led to the present GPS from basic star triangulation method to basic trilateration method.  Both triangulation and trilateration methods are classical trigonometric surveying methods of solving plane triangles  (getting to know lengths of all triangle sides and all three angles) when knowing three parts of which one must be a side, i.e. a distance.  Most of the financial costs were paid by the American taxpayers.  

Now, almost  every man and woman uses a GPS receiver.  GPS has been a life saver in countless situations in all countries.

After 1957, many types of Earth satellites and Atomic Clocks were built and finally satellites had atomic clocks on the approximately two dozen operational GPS Satellites (2011).  

The basic operation principle of GPS is: from the time differences that a particular signal is broadcast from a satellite and is a little later received by 3 GPS receivers at three stations.  The distances between satellite (at the instant when it sent its signal) and the receiving stations can be computed. The station coordinates by some GPS receivers can be obtained to millimeter accuracies.

Then the GPS receiver can display its location (i.e. coordinates: latitude, longitude and elevation) whether the receiver is on the ground, in a car, in an airplane or up in a tree.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Geodetic_System

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System

http://www.biographybase.com/biography/Vaisala_Yrjo.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Geodetic_System

Google:   < important geoscientists >

http://cgiss.boisestate.edu/~billc/geoscientists.html

Google:   < friedrich robert helmert > 1843-1917.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Robert_Helmert

Google:   < friedrich wilhelm bessel > 1784-1846.

http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Bessel.html

Google:   < karl friedrich gauss > 1777-1855.

http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Gauss.html

Google:   < adrien-marie legendre > 1752-1833

http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Legendre.html

Google:   < pierre-simon laplace > 1749-1827.

http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Laplace.html

Google:   < joseph-louis lagrange > 1736-1813.

http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Lagrange.html

Google:   < alexis claude clairaut > 1713-1765.

http://www.stetson.edu/~efriedma/periodictable/html/Cl.html

Google:    < johannes kepler > 1571-1630

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Kepler

Google:   < tycho brahe > 1546-1601

http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/brahe.html

Google:   < nicolaus Copernicus > 1473-1543.

http://www.phy.hr/~dpaar/fizicari/xcopern.html

Google:   < erathostenes' method > ?-194 BC

http://eduwww.mikkeli.fi/opetus/myk/kv/comenius/erathostenes.htm

11.3. General Shape of the Earth

Google: < geoid map >

http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMNBNKIWZF_index_1.html

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/GRACE_Revised/page3.html

Google:  < world geodetic system [wgs] >

http://earth-info.nga.mil/GandG/wgs84/

Google:  < wgs 1984 >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Geodetic_System

Google:  < orbital perturbations of satellite orbits >

http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986PhDT........15R

http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981AnG....37..113D

http://qjmam.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/15/3/283

http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v190/n4776/abs/190615a0.html

http://www.aero.org/publications/chao/index.html

http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1994/94JC02080.shtml

http://www.astro.oma.be/ICET/icetdb/7_8.html

Google:   < US Naval Observatory (USNO) GPS Operations >

http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/gps.html

http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/gpsinfo.html

Google:   < NGS-PRECISE GPS ORBITS >

http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/orbits/

http://edu-observatory.org/gps/tracking.html

Google:   < location of GEO communication satellites >

http://www.adec.edu/satdb/sat-loc.html

http://www.adec.edu/satdb/timechart.html

http://www.patentstorm.us/patents/5889492-claims.html

http://www.patentstorm.us/patents/6028551-claims.html 

11.6.  Room-Size Balloon Model and the Moon Astronauts

http://www.google.com/#hl=en&sugexp=ldymls&xhr=t&q=photo+of+eath+taken+from+the+moon&cp=33&qe=cGhvdG8gb2YgZWF0aCB0YWtlbiBmcm9tIHRoZSBtb29u&qesig=Hathhg5dBnuJNXVIupt4vA&pkc=AFgZ2tkRrTPYXibuKjpBy3CwzkyV5B-IhKvEXUR2KxHt-fAE4Ra8EN6QGrDW02R2ss_8eJ5aUmA0NSwnDBPNlqhvAkTGGgeCUQ&pf=p&sclient=psy&source=hp&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&oq=photo+of+eath+taken+from+the+moon&pbx=1&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.&fp=bb00a8cd1aea9d79&biw=1016&bih=775

www.space.com/imageoftheday/image_of_day_041004.html

http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery/photogallery-earth.html

http://www.geo-orbit.org/sizepgs/geodef.html        

http://inkido.indiana.edu/a100/earthmoon2.html

12.  Miniature Models of the Entire Universe

12.1.  Miniature Model Number One of the Known Universe

Google:  < one light year >        

http://www.answers.com/topic/light-year?cat=technology

12.2. Location of Planet Earth in this Model

12.3. Miniature Model Number Two of the Universe

Google:  < bedbugs >

http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=bedbugs&btnG=Search

http://www.everydayhealth.com/info/v1p/bedbugs?xid=g_dlp&s_kwcid=TC|21765|bedbugs||S|e|6549093734&gclid=CIH5-qf_pKkCFcO8Kgodl2kxyQ

12.4. Miniature Overview Model Number Three of the Universe

12.5. Where are we in this Universe?

Google:  < hubble measures the expanding universe >  

http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/headlines/ast25may99_1.htm

Google:   < how many stars in the milky way galaxy? >        

http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/question.php?number=31

Google:   < how many stars in the universe? >

http://www.esa.int/esaSC/SEM75BS1VED_index_0.html

Google:   < how many galaxies in the universe? >

http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_astro/answers/021127a.html

Google:   < nearest 50 stars >

http://www.cosmobrain.com/cosmobrain/res/nearstar.html

http://www.astro-tom.com/technical_data/nearest_stars.htm

Google:   < milky way galaxy >

http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=milky+way+galaxy+&btnG=Search

Google:   < star constellations >

http://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/

Google:   < m31 the andromeda galaxy >

http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap991114.html

Google:   < celestial coordinates >

http://www.astronomynotes.com/nakedeye/s6.htm        

13.  Earth’s Orbit around ‘Our’ Sun

Google: < the nine planets >

http://kids.nineplanets.org/intro.htm

Google:   < one light year distance >

http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/cosmic_classroom/cosmic_reference/distance.html

Google:   < kepler's laws >

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/history/kepler.html

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/kepler.html

Google:   < planetary orbital elements >

http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?planets#elem

http://www.met.rdg.ac.uk/~ross/Astronomy/Planets.html

Google:   < jpl solar system dynamics >

http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/

Google:   < ellipse - from mathworld >

http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Ellipse.html

http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Ellipsoid.html

Google:  < precession and nutation >

http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/question.php?number=545

Google:  < precession and nutation of the equinoxes >

http://www.hartrao.ac.za/nccsdoc/slalib/sun67.htx/node203.html

Google:  < fundamental physical constants > When there, click on ‘Adopted values’, and then ‘standard acceleration of gravity’.

http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/index.html

Google:  < kepler’s laws of planetary motion >

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/history/kepler.html

Google:    < the ellipse >

http://www.google.com/search?q=ellipse&hl=en&biw=1016&bih=775&prmd=ivns&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=kb3uTdWtDpO1qQG7nMynCA&ved=0CFUQsAQ

Google:   < ellipse calculator >

http://easycalculation.com/area/ellipse.php

Google:   < orbit of moon around the sun >

http://www.math.nus.edu.sg/aslaksen/teaching/convex.html

Google:   < barycenter of moon and earth >

http://www.astronomycafe.net/qadir/q665.html

Google:   < earth's seasons >

http://www.google.com/search?q=seasons+on+earth&hl=en&biw=1016&bih=775&prmd=ivns&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=K8DuTeHAE5PksQPDp7CABw&sqi=2&ved=0CCgQsAQ

Google:  < precession of earth > Scroll down and read about the obliquity of the ecliptic plane.

http://astro.wsu.edu/worthey/astro/html/lec-precession.html

Google:   < today's space weather >

http://www.sec.noaa.gov/today.html

Google:   < milky way >

http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/gr/public/gal_milky.html

Google:   < meteor dust >

http://www.expanding-earth.org/page_1.htm

Google:   < 10-accretion of mass > Scroll down to see an astronaut on the Moon.

http://www.expanding-earth.org/page_10.htm

Google:   < meteorite odds/ends & trivia >

http://www.meteorites.com.au/odds&ends/

Google:   < solar wind >

http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/SolarWind.shtml

Google:   < current solar wind conditions > Try to get this type of up-to-date daily information from any printed book!

http://space.rice.edu/ISTP/justdials.html

14.  Creator, God, Supreme Being

15.  Number of Galaxies and Stars in the Universe

Google:   < how to calculate the volume of a sphere? >

http://www.csgnetwork.com/circlecalc.html

Google:   < power of ten multiplier chart >

http://www.poynton.com/notes/units/index.html

http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/definition/Kilo-mega-giga-tera-peta-and-all-that

Google:   < how many galaxies, stars are there in the universe? >

http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_astro/answers/021127a.html

http://www.esa.int/esaSC/SEM75BS1VED_index_0.html

Google:   < list of nearest galaxies >

http://www.atlasoftheuniverse.com/galaclus.html

http://www.answers.com/topic/list-of-galaxies

16.  There is Nothing in the Known Universe Like this Earth

Google: < planet venus statistics >

http://www.solarviews.com/eng/venus.htm

 Scroll down for Venus statistics

http://chemistry.about.com/od/elementfacts/a/lead.htm

Lead melts at 327.5 °C = 600.65 °K = 621.5 °F.

Google:  < planet mercury statistics >

http://www.solarviews.com/eng/mercury.htm   Scroll down to the table.

Google: < outer planets >

http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/planets/

http://www.siec.k12.in.us/west/proj/space/solar2.htm

Google:   < the nine planets >

http://nineplanets.org/

Google:  < views of the solar system >

http://www.solarviews.com/eng/homepage.htm

Google:   < star alpha centauri >

http://hypertextbook.com/facts/KathrynTam.shtml

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_Centauri

Google:   < nearby stars >

http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/super_earth_040825.html

Google:    < the 50 nearest stars >

http://www.cosmobrain.com/cosmobrain/res/brightstar.html

Scroll down to the table of stars.

Google:    < milky way galaxy >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way

Google:  < seti >

http://www.space.com/searchforlife/

http://www.seti.org/

17.  This Solar System in the Milky Way Galaxy

Google:  < milky way galaxy >

http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m_uni/uni_101mw.html

Google:     < galactic year >

http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/G/galyear.html

17.1. Google: < Distance Unit Parsec >

1 Parsec = 3.08568025 × 1016 meters

http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/cosmic_classroom/cosmic_reference/distance.html

http://www.unitconversion.org/length/parsec-conversion.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsec

From link above:

18.  Angular Units of Measurements

18.1. Radians

Google: < radian measure >

http://www.themathpage.com/aTrig/radian-measure.htm

18.2. Degrees, Minutes and Seconds

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_time

18.3. Hours, Minutes and Seconds

Google:   < coordinate systems in astronomy > 

http://seds.lpl.arizona.edu/~spider/spider/ScholarX/coords.html

                < surveying instrument collection – theodolites >

http://www.howstuffworks.com/gps.htm

http://www.advpossys.com/index2.htm

                < kern geodetic theodolites >

http://www.wild-heerbrugg.com/hwatkern.htm

http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/surveying/object.cfm?recordnumber=747733

                < Surveying, Engineering, & Construction Instruments >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodolite

http://www.engineersupply.com/surveying-equipment.aspx

http://www.capitalsurveyingsupplies.com/

19.  Sun and its Planets

Google:   < galactic black holes >

http://library.thinkquest.org/10148/galactic.shtml

                < the nine planets >  Click on Solar system Overview

http://nineplanets.org/

< the sun and its solar system >

http://solarsystem.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/index.cfm

                < centrifugal and centripetal forces >

http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0811114.html

                < sun's rotation period >

http://hypertextbook.com/facts/1999/RadhikaKapoor.shtml

                < the very latest soho images >

For the day the link is clicked and older

http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/data/realtime-update.html

http://sse.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Sun&Display=Facts&System=Metric

http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/data/realtime-images.html

20. Comparing the Gravitations of the Sun, Earth and Moon

The book has numerical examples for the factual situations.

21. Incoming Meteor Particles and Dust to Earth

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteoroid >

http://www.newsfromplanetearth.com/44153/how-do-we-dodge-the-next-incoming-asteroid/

Google:  < inclination for solar orbits >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inclination

http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/charchart.cfm

http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-284751/inclination

Google:  < the nine planets solar system tour >

http://nineplanets.org/tour/

< web definitions for radiation pressure >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation_pressure

http://blazelabs.com/f-g-rpress.asp

http://www.answers.com/topic/solar-sail?cat=technology

               < solar sails, latest news >

http://www.solarsails.info/

http://wiki.solarsails.info/index.php?title=Main_Page

http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110203/full/news.2011.68.html

http://www.aolnews.com/2011/04/25/nasa-solar-sail-is-the-little-satellite-that-could/

               < asteroids, comets, meteoroids, meteorites, meteors >

http://schoolworkhelper.net/2011/02/solar-system-debris-comets-asteroids-meteoroids-meteors/

http://www.kidscosmos.org/kid-stuff/asteroid-facts.html

http://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/topnav/subjects/spacescience/Asteroids_Comets_Meteorites.html

             < artificial satellites >

http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/artificial_satellites_worldbook.html

               < solar wind >

http://spaceweather.com/

On the upper left, solar wind is listed for the day the link is clicked.

For Jun. 9, 2011, it was: speed: 463.3 km/sec and density: 2.0 protons/cm3

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/sun/wind.html

               < comet tails >

http://hubblesite.org/reference_desk/faq/answer.php.id=19&cat=solarsystem

                  http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap061004.html

                  http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap060319.html

                  http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/InnerPlot.html

Google:  < one astronomical unit >

1 AU = 149 598 000 km = 500 light-seconds = Average Distance Earth to Sun

http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/glossary/au.html

               < asteroids and comets >

http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/planets/asteroidpage.html

               < comet plunging into the Sun >

http://www.space.com/11838-photo-comet-plunges-sun-solar-storm.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Shoemaker%E2%80%93Levy_9

http://umbra.nascom.nasa.gov/comets/SOHO_sungrazers.html

                http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/topstory/20011025comet.html

                http://marine.rutgers.edu/mrs/education/class/paul/orbits.html

                < orbital mechanics >

http://www.braeunig.us/space/orbmech.htm

              < Solar radiation - Encyclopedia of Earth >

http://www.eoearth.org/article/Solar_radiation

                http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2006/13jun_lunarsporadic.htm

                http://www.spaceweather.com/comets/gallery_mcnaught.htm

                http://www.spaceweather.com/comets/gallery_cometswan.html

Google:  < lunar impact craters >

http://www.lpi.usra.edu/expmoon/science/craterstructure.html

               < the three body problem >

http://pages.physics.cornell.edu/sethna/teaching/sss/jupiter/jupiter.htm

               < searching antarctic ice for meteorites >

http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Feb02/meteoriteSearch.html

Google:   < principal lunar craters >

http://www.fourmilab.ch/earthview/lunarform/cratallp.html

                < antarctic meteorites >

http://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/antmet/index.cfm

             < escape velocity of the nine planets >

http://www.nineplanets.org/data2.html

Google:  < chicago 2003 may 6 meteorite >

http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap030506.html

http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Aug04/ParkForest.html

               < large asteroids >

http://www.crystalinks.com/asteroids.html

http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/watchtheskies/toutatis-092804.html

http://www.nineplanets.org/asteroids.html

Google:  < meteor showers > Click on ‘Calendar’ and ‘Periodic’.

http://stardate.org/nightsky/meteors/

Google:  < mach number >

http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/mach.html

               < tunguska asteroid >

http://www.psi.edu/projects/siberia/siberia.html

http://www.google.com/search?q=tunguska&hl=en&biw=1016&bih=775&prmd=ivns&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=VXHzTZHEPInYgQf3lbTFCw&sqi=2&ved=0CD4QsAQ

               < barringer asteroid >

http://www.barringercrater.com/

http://www.google.com/search?q=barringer+crater&hl=en&biw=1016&bih=775&prmd=ivnsm&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=6HHzTcDoH8nZgAfZy6HHCw&sqi=2&ved=0CEcQsAQ

http://www.meteorcrater.com/index.php

Note clickable links on top of the page.

Google:   < asteroids and comets >

http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/planets/asteroidpage.html

                < shoemaker-levy asteroid home page >

http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/comet.html

                < images of the moon >

http://www.google.com/#sclient=psy&hl=en&source=hp&q=images+f+thE+moon&aq=f&aqi=g-sx5&aql=&oq=&pbx=1&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.&fp=f47737c79cc7719f&biw=1016&bih=775

http://www.astrosurf.com/cidadao/moon.htm

                < planet mercury >

http://www.solarspace.co.uk/Mercury/mercury.php

http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/messenger/main/index.html

21.1. Incoming Asteroids and Debris to Earth’s Vicinity

Google:  < the nine planets >

http://pds.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/

Google:  < comets hitting the sun >

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/05/13/comet-hits-sun-nasa-video_n_861736.html

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WvTHmIYTNn0

               < comet shoemaker - levy 9 >

http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/sl9/

               < asteroids and comets >

http://www.kidscosmos.org/kid-stuff/asteroid-facts.html

               < welcome to the planets >

http://www.unmuseum.org/halleycomet.htm

              < the sun and its solar system >

http://www.astronomytoday.com/astronomy/sun.html

               < centrifugal and centripetal forces >

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/corf.html

               < milky way galaxy >

http://www.ology.amnh.org/astronomy/milkyway/index.htm

21.2. Comet Tempel-Tuttle’s Debris and Leonid Meteor Showers

Goggle:  < comet tempel-tuttle, the leonid comet >

http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap021116.html

Cometary Tail:  

http://www.google.com/search?q=cometary+tails&hl=en&biw=1016&bih=775&prmd=ivns&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=XtbzTa3wLrTUiAKAmqWRBw&sqi=2&ved=0CD0QsAQ

http://www.spaceweather.com/comets/gallery_mcnaught_page12.php

To enlarge, click on thumbnail photos.

Google:  < fell october 9, 1992 >

http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap061119.html

Scroll down on ‘Peekskill photo’ to see a rocky piece of the meteorite that hit the car trunk.

Google:  < escape velocities in celestial mechanics >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_mechanics

Google:  < meteoroid hits to hubble telescope >

http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/headlines/ast16nov98_2.htm

21.3. Asteroids from Interstellar and Intergalactic Space

Google:  < extrasolar asteroids >

http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/New_Evidence_Of_Extrasolar_Asteroid_Belt_999.html

               < asteroid belts >

http://www.solstation.com/stars/asteroid.htm

               < jpl solar system dynamics >

http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/

               < kinetic energy >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetic_energy

Google:   < revolution and rotation of the planets >

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/solarsys/revolution.html

                < asteroids from outer space >

http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~rwp01/pa019.htm

                < history of asteroids from outer space >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C/2006_P1

From link above:  

This number (bigger than number one) eccentricity shows that the comet was in a hyperbolic orbit.  It will never return to this solar system.  It also likely came from outer space from outside our solar system for its only swing around our Sun

http://www.webmesh.co.uk/overlord/protection.htm

                < moon's geological history >

http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/moon2.html&edu=high

                < planet mercury >

http://www.solarspace.co.uk/Mercury/mercury.php

                < tunguska asteroid >

http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1200/is_n2_v143/ai_13326810

21.4. Annual Meteor Showers

http://www.amsmeteors.org/tag/2011-major-annual-meteor-showers/

21.5. Comets and Large Asteroids

http://meteorite.org/facts.shtml

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_event

Google:   < The Landscape on Comet Tempel 1 >

http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap050706.html

                < asteroids and comets >

http://www.seasky.org/cosmic/sky7a04.html

                < near earth asteroid tracking >

http://neat.jpl.nasa.gov/

                < near earth object program >

http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/

                < the threat and promise of asteroids and comets >

http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/8505/Asteroids.htm

http://pan-starrs.ifa.hawaii.edu/public/asteroid-threat/asteroid_threat.html

                < astronomy picture of the day archive >

http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/archivepix.html

The link above has | Index | Search | Today's Picture | 

                < nasa image of the day gallery >

http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/index.html

Also click on ‘View Image Gallery’ under the small image. Click on image to enlarge it.

 http://www.universetoday.com/am/publish/bang_asteroid_hit.html

Google:  < quaoar >

http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2002/07oct_newworld.htm

Google:  < 1908 asteroid > This site describes many asteroids.

http://whyfiles.org/106asteroid/2.html

Google:   < the moon fact sheet >

http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/moonfact.html

                < asteroids and comets >

http://www.stargazer.htmlplanet.com/asteroids_comets.html

                < the solar and heliospheric observatory >

http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/

            < the very latest soho images >

  SOHO = The Solar and Heliospheric  Observatory

http://www.google.com/search?q=the+very+latest+soho+images&hl=en&biw=1016&bih=775&prmd=ivns&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=HuXzTaKRJ4bgiAKytfSJBw&sqi=2&ved=0CDEQsAQ

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SOHO_EIT_304.jpg

                < asteroid collisions with earth >

http://geo.arc.nasa.gov/sge/jskiles/fliers/all_flier_prose/asteroid_toon/asteroid_toon.html

            < photos of asteroids > 

http://images.google.com/images?q=photos+of+asteroids+&hl=en&um=1&sa=X&oi=images&ct=title

 To enlarge an image, click on it.  Note that even small asteroids have been ‘nicked’ by other asteroids.

21.6. Asteroids/Comets/Debris Approaching ‘Our’ Moon

Google: < regolith on moon >

http://images.google.com/images?svnum=10&um=1&hl=en&q=regolith+on+moon+&btnG=Search+Images

              < Boeing Celebrates the 30th Anniversary of Apollo 11 >

http://images.google.com/images?svnum=10&um=1&hl=en&q=Boeing+Celebrates+the+30th+Anniversary+of+Apollo+11+&btnG=Search+Images

             < neil amstrong's footstep on the moon >

http://images.google.com/images?svnum=10&um=1&hl=en&sa=X&oi=spell&resnum=0&ct=result&cd=1&q=+neil+armstrong%27s+footstep+on+the+moon&spell=1

              < lunar meteorites >

http://images.google.com/images?svnum=10&um=1&hl=en&q=lunar+meteorites+&btnG=Search+Images

              < definition of escape velocity >

http://www.cite-sciences.fr/lexique/definition1.php?idmot=165&id_expo=12&lang=an&id_habillage=21&resultat=1&num_page=1

http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap051217.html 

http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2005/07dec_moonstorms.htm

http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap070225.html

http://www.nineplanets.org/luna.html

http://ase.tufts.edu/cosmos/view_picture.asp?id=524

Note on using 3 Browsers: Google Chrome, Safari and Firefox on the author’s Mac Mini Computer with Comcast Cable Internet connection, to open the desired links when editing this “Quick Pick Links” Document:

Google Chrome is consistently the fastest of the three Browsers to open the desired links.

Google Chrome is the only of the other two Browsers on this computer that has about 40 ‘tabs’ above the address bar, each opening a previously ‘looked at’ link.

21.7. Asteroids and Comets Hitting ‘Our’ Moon

Google:  < moon >

http://moon.google.com/

                < lunar impact craters >

http://www.lpi.usra.edu/expmoon/orbiter/orbiter-craters.html

                < ccd images of the moon >

                http://www.astrosurf.com/cidadao/moon.htm

               http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2006/13jun_lunarsporadic.htm

               http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/ast03nov99_1/

      http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2006/28apr_skyisfalling.htm?list186835

21.8. Deadly Meteor Showers on the Moon

Google:  < how many acres in a square mile?  >

1 square mile = 640 acres = 2.589998 square kilometers = 2,589,998 square meters

1 square kilometer = 100 hectares = 1,000,000 square meters

Google:   < meteors and meteor showers >

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/meteors/showers.html

                < armagh observatory leonid meteors >

http://www.arm.ac.uk/leonid/

                < jpl solar system dynamics >

http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/

< shooting marbles at 16,000 mph > 16,000 MPH = 25,750 km/h = 7.15 km/s= 4.4 mi/s

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/03/070319151522.htm

From link above: “A typical flash involves "a meteoroid the size of a softball hitting the Moon at 27 km/s and exploding with as much energy as 70 kg of TNT.” and

“estimate the energies of the softball-size meteoroids that hit the Moon at up to 72 km/s, more than six times the speed of the Ames gun.”  resulting in energy of 500 kg of TNT.  READ THE ARTICLE IN THE LINK.

                < nasa - fireball sightings >

http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2005/03nov_taurids.htm

http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2005/22dec_lunartaurid.htm?list186835

http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2006/13jun_lunarsporadic.htm

http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/061201_moon_impacts.html

http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2007/23jan_ltps.htm?list186835

21.9. Asteroids/Comets Hitting Planet Mars, Other Planets and Their Moons

Google:   < the moons of mars >

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/mars/moons.html

< planet mars >

http://seds.org/~spider/mars/mars.html

                < planet mercury >

http://www.space.com/11072-photos-mercury-nasa-messenger-mission.html

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/mercury/mercury.html

                < planet venus >

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/venus/venus.html

                < quaoar >

http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap021009.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrometry

21.10. Asteroids/Comets/Debris Coming to the Vicinity of the Sun

Google:  < asteroids and comets >

http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/planets/asteroidpage.html

Google:  < comets hitting the sun >

http://www.cnn.com/TECH/space/9806/04/kamikaze.comets/

22.  Living Conditions on Solar Planets and Moons

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_habitability

22.1. Mercury

Google:   < mercury >

http://www.nineplanets.org/mercury.html

                < the nine planets >

.

http://www.nineplanets.org/

22.2. Venus

Google:  < venus >

http://www.nineplanets.org/venus.html

22.3. Earth is the Only Known God’s ‘Garden Spot’ in the Universe

http://www.aerospaceguide.net/planet/planetearth.html

22.4. Mars

Google:  < the nine planets > Click on Mars, and on its moons, Phobos and Deimos.

http://www.nineplanets.org/

                < NASA GISS: Science Briefs: Telling Time on Mars >

http://www.giss.nasa.gov/research/briefs/allison_02/

22.5. Jupiter

Google:   < the nine planets >

http://www.nineplanets.org/

 Click on Jupiter, and on some of its many moons.

                < comet shoemaker-levy 9 >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Shoemaker%E2%80%93Levy_9

http://pluto.jhuapl.edu/soc/

http://www.windows2universe.org/comets/SL9.html

22.6. Saturn

Google:   < the nine planets >

http://www.nineplanets.org/

Click on Saturn and on some of its many moons.

                < nasa-cassini-huygens >

http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/home/index.cfm

                < cassini pictures >

http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/multimedia/images/index.cfm

                http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/cassini/main/index.html

22.7. Uranus

Google:  < the nine planets >

http://www.nineplanets.org/

Click on Uranus and on some of its many moons.

22.8. Neptune

Neptune is not a livable place and neither are its moons.

Google:  < the nine planets >

http://www.nineplanets.org/

Click on Neptune and on some of its moons.

22.9. Pluto

http://www.google.com/search?q=planet+pluto&hl=en&pwst=1&biw=896&bih=768&prmd=ivns&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=OgP1Te6ILIWDgAeqlcXaCw&ved=0CC4QsAQ

http://www.iau.org/

http://pluto.jhuapl.edu/

This site is about the ‘NEW HORIZONS’ probe on its way (2007) to Pluto, arriving there in July 2015, when the same link will have 2015 >>>photos.

http://pluto.jhuapl.edu/mission/whereis_nh.php

Google:  < the nine planets >

http://www.nineplanets.org/

http://www.solarviews.com/eng/homepage.htm

Click on Pluto and on its moon Charon.

               <views of the solar system >  Select English, or another language.  

Click thumbnail pictures.

               < mission to Pluto >

http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/newhorizons/main/index.html

23. Size and Shape of the Milky Way Galaxy

Google:  < barnard's star >

http://www.solstation.com/stars/barnards.htm

               < proper motions of stars >

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/motion/proper.html

               < andromeda galaxy >

http://images.google.com/images?q=andromeda+galaxy+&hl=en&um=1&sa=X&oi=images&ct=title

Google:  < table of orbital data for the planets >

http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/the_universe/uts/orbits_data.html

Google:   < hubble site >

http://hubble.nasa.gov/news/latest.php

                < andromeda galaxy >

http://www.solstation.com/x-objects/andromeda.htm

                < soho >

http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/

< astronomy picture of the day archive >  

http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/archivepix.html

There is a new picture for every day dating back hundreds of days.  Make an effort to see some of these pictures.  This Internet site gets much higher than just a ‘five star rating’ from the author.  Pun is intended.

24.  Water is Essential for Life on Earth

Google:  < cannibalism in uganda and in congo >

http://observer.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,6903,1020315,00.html

Google:   < where are blood cells manufactured? >

http://www.bloodbankofalaska.org/about_blood/index.html

                < complexity of the human brain >

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/12/061226095421.htm

                < red and white blood cells >

http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/newton/askasci/1993/biology/bio112.htm

Google:   < human brain >

http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/brain/index.html

                < human eye >

http://health.howstuffworks.com/eye.htm

                < human inner ear >

http://www.google.com/search?q=human+inner+ear&hl=en&biw=896&bih=768&prmd=ivns&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=Uwr1TenMMoLZgAeUgKHPCw&ved=0CCMQsAQ

Google:  < composition of volcanic gases >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_gas

25.  Search for Life Elsewhere in the Universe

Google: < seti >

http://weirdnews.aol.com/2011/05/18/seti-at-home-project_n_863338.html

25.1. Possible Life on Inner and Outer Solar Planets

http://www.astro.rug.nl/~onderwys/sterIIproject97/kleefman/index.html

Google:   < comet hale-bopp >

http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/comet/

                < recent comets >

http://www.cometobservation.com/RecentObs.html

                < glossary astronomical unit {AU} >

http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/glossary/au.html

                < technical facts of planet mars >

http://axonchisel.net/etc/space/mars-exp-rover-highlights.html

Google:  < inverse square law >

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/forces/isq.html

25.2. Reasons Why Other Solar Planets/Moons are Lifeless

Google:  < overview of the solar system >

http://www.nineplanets.org/overview.html

Google:  < kelvin temperature scale >

http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0827335.html

Google:  < exploratorium.edu/ronh/weight/index.html >

http://www.exploratorium.edu/ronh/weight/index.html

Google:   < tse-pageos >

http://www.tbs-satellite.com/tse/online/sat_pageos.html

                < solar sail info >

http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/S/solar_sail.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_sail

                < solar electromagnetic radiation pressure index >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation_pressure

Google;   < meteors and meteor showers >

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/meteors/showers.html

 Scroll to see orbits of debris.

            < annual meteor showers >

http://www.saguaroastro.org/content/ANNUALmeteorSHOWERS.htm

Google: < lunar regolith >

http://www.moonminer.com/Lunar_regolith.html

http://www.gigapan.org/gigapans/49131/

http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2007/14mar_marbles/

              < escape velocity:planetary reckoning >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escape_velocity

http://www.qrg.northwestern.edu/projects/vss/docs/space-environment/2-whats-escape-velocity.html

               < martian atmosphere >

http://starryskies.com/solar_system/mars/martian_atmosphere.html

               < martian dust storms >

http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast16jul_1.htm

26.  We Will Never Meet Aliens from Extra Solar Planets

         Google:  < nearest 50 stars >

http://www.cosmobrain.com/cosmobrain/res/nearstar.html

              < planetary three-body problem >

http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0505169

              < nearest doublet stars >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_star

http://www.irpoyser.co.uk/glossary.php

Google:  < kinetic energy >

http://www.teachersdomain.org/assets/wgbh/hew06/hew06_doc_lpakepe/hew06_doc_lpakepe.pdf

Google:  < cosmic radiation in our galaxy >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation

               < NASA/Marshall Solar Physics >

http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/

 Scroll down to Recent Solar Physics News Stories.

Google:  < peekskill meteorite car >

http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap061119.html

http://www.nyrockman.com/peekskill.htm

         < terrestrial impact craters >

http://www.solarviews.com/eng/tercrate.htm

                          < 10-Accretion of Mass >

http://www.expanding-earth.org/page_10.htm

27.  Keplerian Orbits

Google:  < kepler's laws with animation >

http://www.drennon.org/science/kepler.htm

               < planetary orbital elements >

http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?planets#elem

               < satellite observing: orbital elements >

http://spacelist.org/orbital.shtml

               < physics-celestial mechanics >

http://orca.phys.uvic.ca/~tatum/celmechs.html

Google:   < parabola >

http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Parabola.html

                < hyperbola >

http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Hyperbola.html

Google:  < foci of an ellipse >

http://www.mathwords.com/f/foci_ellipse.htm

Google:  < conic sections >

http://math2.org/math/algebra/conics.htm

Google:  < ellipse calculator >

http://www.cleavebooks.co.uk/scol/callipse.htm

               < orbits of comets >

http://www.drennon.org/science/kepler.htm

http://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/segwayed/lessons/cometstale/frame_orbits.html

               < planetary orbits >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit

               < navy and satellites >

http://www.onr.navy.mil/focus/spacesciences/satellites/starshine2.htm

< asteroids and comets >

http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/comets.php

28.  Original Building Blocks of all Materials

Google:   < periodic table of elements >

http://www.webelements.com/webelements/scholar/

Google:   < sun's radiation >

http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/6f.html

                < vitamin d >

http://www.vitamindcouncil.com/

28.1. Origins of Atoms and Molecules

Google:   < age of the universe >

http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m_uni/uni_101age.html

                < big bang theory >

http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m_uni/uni_101bb1.html

                < NOVA online, runaway  universe >

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/universe/

28.3. Did God Do It All?  What Is Controlling Our Sun?

Google:  < red giant stars >

http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_astro/answers/971016.html

Google:   < period of sun's orbit around the galactic center >

http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2002/StacyLeong.shtml

                < the sun - the future of us >

http://www.michielb.nl/sun/leven.htm

                < the milky way galaxy >

http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/the_universe/Milkyway.html&edu=mid

28.4. If Not God, Who, Or What Did It All?

Nobody knows.

28.5. Unanswerable Eternal Questions

Answers are coming.    Learning is a never-ending job.

29. Some Details of Earth’s Motions

Google: < rotation of milky way galaxy >

http://cassfos02.ucsd.edu/public/tutorial/MW.html

Google: < earth’s orbit >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth's_orbit

http://www.google.com/search?q=earth%E2%80%99s+orbit&hl=en&biw=896&bih=768&prmd=ivns&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=sCj1TZniC8Hf0QHc9pDuDA&sqi=2&ved=0CD0QsAQ

Google: < earth’s rotation >

http://image.gsfc.nasa.gov/poetry/ask/arot.html

Google:   < earth’s four seasons >

http://www.astronomy.ohio-state.edu/~pogge/Ast161/Unit2/seasons.html

                < astronomy dictionary >

http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/glossary/

Google:    < wgs-84 >

http://earth-info.nga.mil/GandG/wgs84/

http://earth-info.nga.mil/GandG/images/ww15mgh2.gif

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_Recovery_and_Climate_Experiment

Click on: 2 How GRACE works

http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/GOCE/SEMY0FOZVAG_0.html

Click on the map and get the HI-RES JPEG (Size: 373 kb)

                 < geodetic reference system 1980 >

http://www.gfy.ku.dk/~iag/handbook/geodeti.htm

                 < mach number >

http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/mach.html

29.1. Daily Rotation of Earth

Google:    < sidereal time > Sidereal year has 366.24222 sidereal days, EXACTLY one more than in a solar year.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_time

< Google: < solar time >  Solar year has 365.24222 solar days

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_time

               < leap seconds >

http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/time/leap/

29.2. Earth’s Annual Revolution (Journey) Around the Sun

.

Google:    < kinetic energy >

http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/energy/u5l1c.html

< speed of sound in air >

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/sound/souspe3.html

Google:   < kepler’s laws >

http://www.astronomynotes.com/history/s7.htm

                < johannes kepler >

http://zebu.uoregon.edu/textbook/planets.html

29.3. Recapping Earth’s Motions We Share Every Day

        Google:  < speed of the milky way in space >

http://hypertextbook.com/facts/1999/PatriciaKong.shtml

 < speed of the sun >

http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2001/AngelaChan.shtml

 < speed of the earth in orbit >

http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2000/IlanaEpstein.shtml

http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_astro/answers/970401c.html

Google:  < the datastore - planets >

http://www.solarsystem.org.uk/datamoonstext.html

Google:  < tilt of the moon's orbit >  Run the short video

http://observe.phy.sfasu.edu/courses/ast105/lectures105/chapter02/moon_orbit_tilt_vs_ecliptic.htm

Google:  < andromeda galaxy >

http://haydenplanetarium.org/resources/ava/page/index.php?file=G0601andmilwy

               < interacting and merging galaxies >

http://www.mpa-garching.mpg.de/HIGHLIGHT/1999/highlight9905_e.html

29.4. Examples of some Slower Earthly Speeds

Google:  < measuring land subsidence from space >

http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs-051-00/

http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs06903/

http://www.usgs.gov/science/science.php?term=624

http://www.geodesy.miami.edu/sar.html

Google:  < earth’s interior >

http://geophysics.ou.edu/geomechanics/notes/heatflow/global_heat_flow.htm

http://www.solarviews.com/eng/earthint.htm

http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/interior/

http://library.thinkquest.org/17457/platetectonics/1.php 

http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/309/5731/87

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/earth/interior.html

http://www.learner.org/interactives/dynamicearth/structure.html

               < isostasy >

http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Display.cfm?Term=isostasy

http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0006406.html

http://www.homepage.montana.edu/~geol445/hyperglac/isostasy1/

http://www.homepage.montana.edu/~geol445/hyperglac/sealevel2/

http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/ice/lec09/lec9.htm

http://www.iag-aig.org/attach/89239e4fcab8a1098cedfc494a7eb67b/G03-heckwild_paper.pdf

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0040195183900987

               < last ice age >

http://nature.ca/notebooks/english/iceage.htm

http://www.scotese.com/lastice.htm

http://www.esd.ornl.gov/projects/qen/nerc130k.html

http://www.esd.ornl.gov/projects/qen/nerc.html

http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/ice_ages/

http://earth.rice.edu/MTPE/cryo/cryosphere/topics/ice_age.html

               < archimedes’ principle >

http://www.onr.navy.mil/focus/blowballast/sub/work2.htm

http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0804583.html

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/pbuoy.html

http://physics.weber.edu/carroll/Archimedes/principle.htm

               < isostatic equilibrium >

http://www.maden.hacettepe.edu.tr/dmmrt/dmmrt613.html

http://www.tectonic-forces.org/pt08.htm

http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/infobank/programs/html/school/moviepage/06.01.25.html

http://www.cliffsnotes.com/WileyCDA/CliffsReviewTopic/Isostatic-Equilibrium.topicArticleId-9605,articleId-9557.html

http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v283/n5748/abs/283651a0.html

               < isostasy and gravity >

http://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/visualization/collections/IsosGrav.html

http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000mpse.conf...51G

               < ice ages >

http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/ice_ages/why_4_cool_periods.html

http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/ice_age/

http://www.iceagenow.com/

http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/mammals/Iceagemammals.shtml

http://www.whoi.edu/page.do?pid=7500&tid=282&cid=9126

http://www.springerlink.com/content/l4g1u662181vl47l/

I Link above is author’s article.  In it is shown that should the present Antarctic ice masses melt, world oceans would not climb up to the present +65-meter elevation contour line as has appeared in the literature. The rise in the observed mean sea level at the shorelines of world oceans would only be 10 to 15 meters.  The 65 meters is now (2011) about 80 meters.

               < milankovitch cycles >

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Milankovitch/

http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/milankovitch.html

http://www.homepage.montana.edu/~geol445/hyperglac/time1/milankov.htm

http://deschutes.gso.uri.edu/~rutherfo/milankovitch.html

http://geography.about.com/od/learnabouttheearth/a/milankovitch.htm

http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/climate/cli_sun.html

http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/~polsen/nbcp/cmintro.html

30.  Orbits of Solar Planets

Google:   < orbits of solar planets >

http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/charchart.cfm

                < orbital properties of the solar system >

http://zebu.uoregon.edu/astr121.html

                < the nine planets >

http://history.nasa.gov/SP-345/contents.htm

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/index.html

http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/98/22/12342

Google:  < jpl solar system dynamics >

http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/

31.  Time Keeping, Basic Units Of Time

.  

Google:   < annual trigonometric parallax >

http://www.answers.com/topic/parallax?cat=health

http://zebu.uoregon.edu/~imamura/121/lecture-2/parallax.html

http://www.astronomy.ohio-state.edu/~pogge/Ast162/Movies/parallax.html

See how the nearby ‘red-dot’ star seems to move among the more distant stars as the Earth revolves around in its 1 AU radius annual orbit.

                < zodiac constellations >

http://homepage.mac.com/kvmagruder/bcp/zodiacal/zoo.htm

http://naggum.no/lugm-time.html

http://www.time.gov/exhibits.html

Find official U.S, standard time to the nearest second 24/7/365 when you click it:

http://nist.time.gov/timezone.cgi?Eastern/d/-5/java

http://tf.nist.gov/general/glossary.htm

Google:   < definition of one second >

http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/0,,sid9_gci524077,00.html

                < nist time and frequency division >

http://tf.nist.gov/ 

http://www.nist.gov/pml/div688/faq.cfm

http://tf.nist.gov/general/faq.htm

Google:  < angular momentum >

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/amom.html

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/solarsys/angmom.html

http://www.astronomynotes.com/angmom/s1.htm

http://library.thinkquest.org/3042/angular.html

Google:  < leap seconds >

http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/leapsec.html

http://tf.nist.gov/pubs/bulletin/leapsecond.htm

http://www.ucolick.org/~sla/leapsecs/onlinebib.html

http://www.ucolick.org/~sla/leapsecs/

http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/05210/545823.stm

31.1. Sidereal Time

Google:  < sidereal day >

http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/astronomy/SiderealDay.html

Google:    < earth's orbit around the sun >

http://www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/content/visualizations/es0408/es0408page01.cfm?chapter_no=visualization

Start the video in the link above.

                 < leap years >

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/acloc.html

http://www.timeanddate.com/date/leapyear.html

http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/astronomy/LeapYear.html

http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/astronomy/GregorianCalendar.html

http://www.infoplease.com/spot/gregorian1.html

http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/astronomy/JulianCalendar.html

http://astro.nmsu.edu/~lhuber/leaphist.html

32.  Compass Directions, Azimuths and Bearings

Google:  < azimuths >

http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/geology/leveson/core/linksa/comp.html

If you need to compute locations for points, use azimuths. Don’t mess with bearings!

               < compass directions >

http://hes.ucfsd.org/curricu/mapglobe/index.html

               < compass bearings on maps >

http://erg.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/factsheets/fs03501.html

Google:  < ngs faqs >

http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/faq.shtml

               < product overview theodolite from wild heerbrugg >

http://www.wild-heerbrugg.com/theodolites.htm

               < geodesy products from wild heerbrugg >

http://www.wild-heerbrugg.com/

http://www.swisstek.com/kern_swiss.htm

Google:   < magnetic compass >

http://inventors.about.com/od/cstartinventions/a/Compass.htm

http://www.learn-orienteering.org/old/lesson3.html

                < gps positioning >

http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gps.html

http://www.gpsy.com/gpsinfo/

http://www.spacetoday.org/Satellites/GPS.html

http://www.gpsworld.com/gpsworld/

http://www.globalpositioningsystems.co.uk/?PHPSESSID=6774a8c9e8b6e94897183bb8654a693a

 33.  Geodetic (= Geographic) Coordinates

33.1. Latitudes on Earth

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitude

33.2. Longitudes on Earth

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitude

Google:   < deflections of the vertical >

http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/1990/89JB03782.shtml

http://www.dekoepel.nl/Geodetic-Astronomy.html

http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1979IAUS...82...67O

http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/PUBS_LIB/Geodesy4Layman/TR80003B.HTM

http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=4043269

                < geoid >

http://kartoweb.itc.nl/geometrics/Reference%20surfaces/body.htm

http://www.esri.com/news/arcuser/0703/geoid1of3.html

http://dgfi2.dgfi.badw-muenchen.de/geodis/GRAV/Geoid.html

http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/GEOID/geoid_def.html

http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/GEOID/        

                < geoid undulations >

http://www.usna.edu/Users/oceano/pguth/website/so432web/GeoidMap.htm

http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/pwessel/papers/1994/GRL_94/grl_94.html

33.3. Topographic Elevations above the Mean Sea Level

Google:   < national geodetic survey >

http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/

                < highs and lows. topography and isostasy >

http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/topography/topography.html

                < us naval observatory gps operations >

http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/gps.html

                < us navstar global positioning system >

http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/gpsinfo.html

                < north and south latitudes and longitudes >

http://nationalatlas.gov/articles/mapping/a_latlong.html

                < topographic elevations >

http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/topo/globe.html

                   < understanding topographic maps >

http://imnh.isu.edu/digitalatlas/geog/basics/topo.htm

                   < cartographic maps >

http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/

                < trigonometric leveling >

http://www.tpub.com/content/engineering/14070/css/14070_122.htm

33.4. Celestial Methods for Positioning

Google:   < loran >  

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LORAN 

The United States Coast Guard (USCG) and Canadian Coast Guard (CCG) ceased transmitting LORAN-C (and joint CHAYKA) signals in 2010.[2][3].   Loran was importsnt some 50 years ago.

                < geodetic surveying 1940-1990 >

http://geodesy.noaa.gov/PUBS_LIB/geodetic_surveying_1940.html

http://www.history.noaa.gov/stories_tales/geod1.html

http://geodesy.noaa.gov/PUBS_LIB/pub_index.html

http://www.johann-sandra.com/surveying/land-surveying-links.htm

Google:   < satellite triangulation by noaa >

http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/brs/geind1.htm

http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/corps/geodesy.html

http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/corps/index.html

                < satellite triangulation >

http://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/foundations/satellite_geodesy/welcome.html

                < us navy satellite transit system >

http://support.radioshack.com/support_tutorials/gps/gps_tmline.htm

http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984NavPa..32..425H

http://www.esg.montana.edu/gl/usa/125.00024.000065.00050.00012000676a3.html

Click anywhere on this map and get approximate coordinates, elevations and some other information for that location, (elevations, etc.), The author took a look at the Great Lakes, Salt Lake in Utah, Pikes Peak in Colorado, Lake Okeechobee in Florida and few other spots.

33.5. GPS, The Global Positioning System

NOTICE TO USERS

Commander, Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command is consolidating the command's web presence in accordance with Department of Defense (DoD) and Navy guidance. The U.S. Naval Oceanography portal will be the single access point for all public facing Meteorology and Oceanography products and services. This publicly-accessible portal is currently online at http://www.usno.navy.mil and is being populated. In the near future, non-DoD users will be redirected to this portal.

DoD customers can access all operational data, products and services via the NIPRnet Navy Enterprise Portal Oceanography site athttps://nepoc.oceanography.navy.mil/catalog/index.html (CAC required).

To get to the link     www.usno.mil

       click link below and select the area:

http://www.google.com/#sclient=psy&hl=en&source=hp&q=www.usno.navy.mil%2Fusno%2Fastronomical-applications&aq   =2&aqi=g5&aql=&oq=&pbx=1&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.&fp=f47737c79cc7719f&biw=874&bih=745

This Portal has 5 Portals (Icons),  select USNO for: The United States Naval Observatory (USNO)

Historical items leading to the GPS:

Google : < sextants >

http://www.nauticalantiques.com/sextants2.htm

http://www.stanleylondon.com/sextsext.htm

http://antiques.listings.ebay.com/Maritime_Sextants_W0QQsacatZ37971QQsocmdZListingItemList

               < celestial navigation data >

http://aa.usno.navy.mil/data/docs/celnavtable.html

               < us navy navsat satellite system >

http://www.nasm.si.edu/gps/before.html

http://www.fas.org/spp/military/program/nav/transit.htm

Google:  < the global positioning system >

http://www.gps.gov/

http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gps.html

http://books.google.com/books?id=FAHk65slfY4C&dq=the+global+positioning+system+&pg=PP1&ots=NJOvHl_RhF&sig=Oy3D69YuQLCAhq05oIJhbNgKGQA&prev=http://www.google.com/search%3Fhl%3Den%26q%3Dthe%2Bglobal%2Bpositioning%2Bsystem%2B%26btnG%3DSearch&sa=X&oi=print&ct=title

http://www.trimble.com/gps/index.shtml

http://www.aero.org/education/primers/gps/index.html

Google:   < us naval observatory gps operations >

http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/gps.html

                < awc military space >

http://space.au.af.mil/doctrine.htm

http://space.au.af.mil/

http://www.umuc.edu/mil/awc.shtml

Google:  < quecreek mine rescue >

http://www.roadsideamerica.com/attract/PASOMrescue.html

http://www.quecreekrescue.org/

http://www.post-gazette.com/localnews/20020729mineindex9.asp

http://pittsburgh.about.com/cs/pictures/l/bl_quecreek_1.htm

Surveyors using GPS found the place soon enough where to drill the shaft to successfully rescue the trapped miners.

33.6. Astronomical Positioning

Google:  < daily motions of stars >

http://zebu.uoregon.edu/~imamura/121/lecture-2/daily.html

http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap090909.html

Google:   < earth as an ellipsoid >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_ellipsoid

               < astronomical positioning >

http://www.jgiesen.de/elevaz/basics/index.htm

http://www.springerlink.com/content/01936j083x008740/

The link above is one article written by the author and seems to be on sale by Springer for $34.95, while the whole book can be bought: Hardcover $35.38, Softcover $25.38.

The abstract:

A new reduction method using x, y, z – coordinates is derived for astrolabe observations.  By this method, the latitude and the longitude of the station is computed without the need of a priori knowledge of the station position.  This method is significant development in data reduction of astrolabe and other almucantar observations due to its mathematical exactness, simplicity and the ease of handling the associated statistics.

http://www.aiaa.org/content.cfm?pageid=406&gTable=mtgpaper&gID=67335

Click to see the first page.

Google:   < usno 6-inch transit circles >

http://ad.usno.navy.mil/inst/6inch/

                < theodolites >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transit_instrument

http://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/theodolites/welcome.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodolite

                < meridian transit instruments >

http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-44214/telescope

http://www.saao.ac.za/~wpk/tov1882/meride.html

http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0849275.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meridian_circle

                < western astrolabes >

http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/waslabe.html

http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/astrolabe/exhibition/49033.htm

http://alabe.com/dealers.html

http://astrolabes.org/

                < the united states naval observatory >

http://www.usno.navy.mil/

http://www.astrolabes.org/history.htm

                < the pzt zenith tube website >

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/zenith+tube

http://www.redwhiteandblue.org/christian/plstexts/ZENITH.HTM

< astronomical star catalogs >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_catalogue

http://ad.usno.navy.mil/       plus  

http://tdc-www.harvard.edu/software/star.html

http://tdc-www.harvard.edu/software/catalogs/

http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/W3Browse/star-catalog/sao.html

34.  Celestial Coordinates, Declination and Right Ascensions

Google:   < diurnal circles >

http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0815660.html

                < coordinates on celestial sphere >

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/time/coordinates.html

                < celestial coordinate systems >

http://library.thinkquest.org/29033/begin/coordinate.htm

                < celestial coordinates >

http://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/segwayed/lessons/findplanets/coordinates.html

                < definition of right ascension on celestial sphere >

http://www.answers.com/topic/right-ascension?cat=technology

                < precession and nutation of earth's spin axis >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth's_rotation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutation

http://www.hartrao.ac.za/nccsdoc/slalib/sun67.htx/node203.html

                < sidereal time >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidereal_time

http://astrosun2.astro.cornell.edu/academics/courses//astro201/sidereal.htm

< what does obliquity mean? >

http://www.obliquity.com/info/meaning.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axial_tilt

34.1. Declinations

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declination

34.2. Right Ascensions

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_ascension

Google:  < precession of earth's rotation axis >

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/time/precession.html

                < noaa geodetic surveying >

http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/

                < celestial sphere >

http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/celestial/celestial.html

                < altitude of celestial pole >

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_pole

                < positional astronomy >

http://star-www.st-and.ac.uk/~fv/webnotes/index.html

                < terrestrial sphere >

http://star-www.st-and.ac.uk/~fv/webnotes/chapter1.htm

                < great circle on earth >